By Austin Thomasmeyer Introduction to the Galapagos Penguin The Galapagos Penguin (Spheniscus mendiculus) is one of the world’s seventeen species of penguins. This type of penguin can only be found in the Galapagos Islands, hence the name Galapagos penguin. This is the only species of penguin to be found anywhere in the world besides the Antarctica continent, and the only penguin species located in the Galapagos Islands near the equator. The penguin’s unique features alongside the unordinary nature and biology of the climate that it lives in makes the Galapagos Penguin a unique subject of research. It is one anomaly of science that we are still working towards learning more about and how to conserve their existence in our oceans and islands. Where They Live The majority of the population of the Galapagos penguins reside on the western islands and shores of the Galapagos Islands. This where most of the penguin’s nest, breed, and forage. The penguins choose this location due to the fact that this part of the islands is affected by the cold oceanic upwelling along the equator and the Equatorial Under Current, or more commonly known as the Cromwell current. This upwelling effect causes the penguins climate that it leaves in to have cooler than normal water temperatures, which allows the penguins to be in a familiar cold-water climate just as the other species of the penguins live. Galapagos Penguins primarily build nests that are relatively close to the water’s edge, usually right around the sea level. This nesting location is primarily where the penguins forage for food along the coast and in shallow waters. The disbursement of the penguins is linked with the nutrient rich waters along the western coasts of the Galapagos islands which provide a strong supply of prey when the coastal upwelling is present. What They Eat The diet of the Galapagos Penguin is an area of the research in the species that is ongoing and not too detailed at this point in time. For now, we have observed that these animals are fairly opportunistic feeders that tend to forage within a kilometer of the shore on land and close to the shore at sea. The penguins can be seen preying on species such as sardines, piquitingas, and mullets and this list of prey is primarily responsible for what we know as the penguins’ main makeup of its diet. The availability of prey can be dependent on the weather and the upwelling conditions off the coast of the western islands. If the weather is too warm and the upwelling effects of the area are minimal, that could cause less schooling of sardines and mullets in the area. This will lead to a decrease in availability of the penguins’ crucial food sources that keep them alive and healthy especially during breeding seasons. What Eats Them The Galapagos Penguins have relatively few natural predators in the islands, but are still apart of the food chain. The biggest animal type threats to the penguins are introduced predatory species such as rats, dogs, and cats. The deadliest to fledgling and adult penguins is the feral cat species. These cats prey on newly born penguins and eggs from the nest. This species of feral cats has been closely monitored as to help the population of penguins survive on the islands. Although the penguins are sought out as prey, the deadliest factors that come into the penguins’ lives are through bycatch and climate changes that affect the penguins living and hunting conditions. While the penguins’ main sources of food are sardines and mullets of the like it is easy for Galapagos penguins to be caught and killed as bycatch to fishermen looking to catch the schools of fish that the penguins may be feeding on. Climate change is another important factor in the risks that threaten the penguins’ way of life. If the weather and climate in which they live gets warmer it can decrease amount of nutrients in the waters surrounding the nests of the penguins that will consequently reduce the amount of prey in the penguins’ food web. Endangerment Status The Galapagos Penguin species is one of the five species of penguins that are on the endangered species list. Penguins in general breed at an older age and are slow and clumsy while walking on land which are factors that lead to the lower population numbers among penguins. Surface water temperatures that are warmer than usual can cause threats to the penguins in the way of prey source declines and higher water levels. The nests of the penguins are so close to the water’s edge that it has been seen that a rogue passing wave can sweep a whole nest into the water and drown new hatchlings and submerge eggs. Feral dogs and cats that have been introduced to the area of the penguins carry threats towards the species. The feral dogs can carry and transfer diseases to the penguin population that can kill large sums of the species leading to declining numbers over the years. Feral cats that have been on the island has been introduced and have been one of the largest predators of species. According to the World Wildlife Foundation the current population numbers of the Galapagos penguins in the world are less than 2000 individual penguins, which lands them on the list of endangered species of the world. The breakdown of recent population numbers through the years can be seen in Tables 1 & 2. The entirety of the remaining penguins resides in the Galapagos National Park which allows conservative actions to take place freely. Access to breeding grounds has been strictly monitored to specific licensed researchers as well as restrictions on studies done on the penguins in general are just a few conservative actions that have taken place in order to save the population form extinction. The numbers of predators on the islands such as feral cats, dogs, and rats are closely monitored and have been eradicated in some parts of where the penguins live. The commercial fishing industry near the waters of the Galapagos islands has been severely reduced and monitored in order to protect the remaining population from getting drowned in float nets cast by fishermen in hopes of catching other types of fish. Conclusion The Galapagos Penguins are a unique species of penguins that reside solely in the Galapagos Islands. They are on the endangered species list due to climate change and severe predation from introduced species that spread diseases and prey on newly hatch penguins as well as eggs in the nest. This species of penguin is a known shallow water diver that swims no more than 50 meters below the water’s surface in search of food as well as foraging the surrounding coastal areas. References Boersma, P. D., Cappello, C. D., & Merlen, G. (2017). First observations of post-fledging care in galapagos penguins (spheniscus mendiculus). The Wilson Journal of Ornithology, 129(1), 186-191. “Galápagos Penguin.” WWF, World Wildlife Fund, www.worldwildlife.org/species/galapagos-penguin. “Galapagos Penguin Spheniscus Mendiculus.” Datazone.birdlife.org, datazone.birdlife.org/species/factsheet/galapagos-penguin-spheniscus-mendiculus/text. Karnauskas, K. B., S. Jenouvrier, C. W. Brown, and R. Murtugudde (2015), Strong sea surface cooling in the eastern equatorial Pacific and implications for Galápagos Penguin conservation, Geophys. Res. Lett., 42, 6432–6437 “Penguins Endangered.” Penguins-World.com, Penguins-World , www.penguins-world.com/penguins-endangered/. Vargas, F. Hernan, et al. “ Biological Conservation Biological Effects of El Niño on the Galápagos Penguin.” Biological Conservation, vol. 127, no. 1, Jan. 2006, pp. 107–114.ScienceDirect.
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By Brooks King
Rocky intertidal ecosystems are “rocky shorelines that occupy the region between high and low tide” (“Rocky Intertidal Ecosystems”). Rocky intertidal habitats are areas have different zones and different amounts of tidal waves. This causes certain areas to be best for certain organisms. The four different zones are the splash zone, high intertidal zone, mid intertidal zone, and the low intertidal zone. The splash zone is the wall area directly above the water. It’s called the splash zone because whenever the waves crash against the wall it splashes the area right above the water. Typically organisms usually living around water have a hard time living here because it’s basically all above water and there are only occasional waves that splash up sending food, nutrients and oxygen. Because of these conditions, this area is dominated by algae and black lichens. The high intertidal zone is the area at the very top of the rocks. This area is usually above water, but it does go under twice a day when high tide hits. This area is easier to live on because the water brings the food, nutrients, and even oxygen which help organisms survive. This part of land is usually dominated by barnacles. Since there is more space and more organisms living here than in the splash zone, that causes the competition to rise only moderately. The mid intertidal zone is the area right below the high intertidal area. This area again only goes fully underwater when the high tide comes two times a day. However, because it is lower than the high intertidal zone, it stays underwater for longer. This allows organisms to take their time to gather their food and nutrients for the day. Because there isn’t as much stress forced upon these animals as on animals in zones above, more organisms are able to live here. However, this increases the competition for land, food, etc. This area is usually dominated by algae, gastropods, and mussels. Last but not least, there is the low intertidal zone. This zone is almost always completely underwater unless it is very low tide. The positive side is that the organisms get endless food and nutrients from the water, but competition is at its highest here. The competition is caused because of all the resources and organism’s lack of adaptation required. However, the sea stars live down there, so mussels prefer to stay in the mid intertidal zone in order to stay alive. This land is most dominantly controlled by algae. The rocky intertidal habitats are not only differentiated by their different zones. The height and amount of waves there are also influence where organisms live. For example, areas that do have more waves need to have an adaptation that allows them to somehow anchor to the rocks, so that they don’t get blown over by the waves. For example, Limpets, who live in both the high intertidal zone and the mid intertidal zone, have very muscular feet which allows them to hold their ground when waves come Without their muscular feet, they would be tossed around and stuck in the waves without any control. If they do get caught in the waves, this could end fatally for them if they get carried all the way against a hard wall or rock. Other organisms who live in either the high or mid intertidal zone area also need to adapt to these waves by having some anchoring system. Animals living in this area are constantly being summoned to high stress. They must be able to adapt quickly and often. Depending on which zone they live in, they may have different adaptation requirements. These animals have to be careful of the amount of waves and force of the waves hitting them, but they also have to worry about the water temperature. Since these areas do differ between covered in water and out of water, when seasons change and it gets either hotter or colder, these animals must adapt. One way to resolve this issue is by that organism having a hard shell to protect them from both the ragin sunlight or the blistering cold. Another way is to have a community who all bundle up together and protect each other. Another issue these animals face is the salinity. As the tide changes, so does the amount of salt, so these animals must be able to deal with various amounts throughout the day. The rocky intertidal habitats are very unique because there is so much detail that you only figure out when you do your research. For example, before, I would have thought that this area was just one big area. Instead it’s broken up into four smaller categories, each with unique circumstances and adaptations. It’s crazy to think about how these zones being so close to each other have so many dramatic differences. By Ashley Ball On the ocean floor there is a marine animal that greatly resembles a writing utensil. However this animal doesn't have any ink in it but it does a have a name, it is called sea pen and for obvious reason. Do not let its small size and its lack of defenses fool you there is a lot more to this animal then meets the eye. To begin sea pen belongs to the order Pennatulacea in the class Anthozoa in the phylum Cnidaria (The Editors, 1). An important characteristic of the class Anthozoa is that it's the only class within the phylum Cnidaria that does not have a medusa stage in their development (Anthozoa,1). In addition Anthozoa of the four classes of phylum Cnidaria has by far the most species in it topping out at about six thousand (Anthozoa,1). The word Anthozoa means “flower animals” which is very accurate in the way they look (Anthozoa,1). While the sea pen looks more like a pen it still could easily just pass as a flower even though it is actually an invertebrate. Other invertebrates in this category are sea anemones, corals and sea pansies among many others (Anthozoa, 1). Sea pen is found on muddy or sandy seafloors (Sea Pen, 1). They range anywhere from the Gulf of Alaska to southern California at depths of forty five feet to two hundred and twenty five feet (Sea Pen, 1). Sea pen consists of a lower part or the peduncle which holds it in the mud or the sand and an upper part of the rachis which has many branches bearing a very wide range of polyps (The Editors ,1). Polyps are hollow stalks with a mouth and tentacles sticking out on the open end (The Editors, 1). Polyps typically have mouths which are surrounded by tentacles (The Editors Polyps,1). These tentacles capture prey around them and pull them into their mouth to eat (The Editors Polyps,1). They feed on small organisms that are around them using this process mentioned in the previous sentence (The Editor, 1). The central stalk of the sea pen is known as the primary or axial polyp (The Editor, 1). A sea pen can contain anywhere from a few polyps or up to thirty five thousand of them (Editor,1). Sea pen come in a variety of colors including yellow, orange, red, brown (The Editor, 1). Sea pens have an amazing characteristic in that they can deflate or inflate by getting rid of or taking in water around them by the connected hollow canals of the polyps (The Editor, 1). Another unique characteristic of the sea pen is when they are stimulated in any way or touched by anything or anyone they glow (The Editor, 1). This process is called bioluminescence. This results from a chemical reaction in which the conversion of chemical energy to radiant energy is almost one hundred efficient (The Editor Bioluminescence, 1). This reaction causes it not to give off that much heat so it is known as cold heat or bioluminescence (The Editor Bioluminescence, 1). Sea pens use this chemical reaction to protect themselves and deter predators which is an effective method since they can not move around or fight back in the typical sense. Their primary predators are nudibranchs and sea stars (Retrieved, 1). Sea pens also bury themselves in the sand during the daytime and during the night time they come out at night time to acquire food typically plankton (Retrieved , 1). Sea pen populations in some places are declining one of these places being in the Puget Sound in Washington (Sea Pen, 1). Scientist are not entirely for sure why they are disappearing but they think that their lack of presence indicates an ecosystem in trouble (Sea Pen, 1). The fact that they are disappearing can wreck havoc on the food chain definitely at the top of the food chain (Sea Pen, 1). In conclusion sea pen are a marine animal that has a lot going for it. Between the bioluminescence and how it buries itself and feeds and protects itself. Makes this animal a lot more than meets the eye. It is however in danger and even though scientists do not exactly know why it is disappearing but as always we need to protect our oceans and not dump thing into the oceans. We must protect our oceans. Works Cited The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. (2010, July 26). Sea pen. Retrieved October 30, 2017, from https://www.britannica.com/animal/sea-pen Anthozoa. (n.d.). Retrieved October 30, 2017, from http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Anthozoa The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. (2014, October 22). Polyp. Retrieved October 30, 2017, from https://www.britannica.com/science/polyp-zoology The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. (2016, April 15). Bioluminescence. Retrieved October 30, 2017, from https://www.britannica.com/science/bioluminescence Sea pen. (n.d.). Retrieved October 30, 2017, from https://www.montereybayaquarium.org/animal-guide/invertebrates/sea-pen (n.d.). Retrieved October 30, 2017, from http://www.mesa.edu.au/cnidaria/cnidaria01a.asp By Kaylee Mulhollen Sea otters, or Enhydra Lutris, are the second smallest marine mammal but heaviest of the otters. They reach a maximum weight of forty-five kilograms (kg), although their averages are below this with males weighing 28.3 kg and females 21.1 kg. Sea otters are dark brown in color, with a yellow and brown head and neck. In elder animals, their heads appear gray, which has led to the referral as “the old man of the sea.” These remarkable creatures can live out their entire lives without coming to land (Love, 1). They are the only mammals, other than primates, that use tools in the pursuit of food. Sea otters feed upon invertebrates, and will use stones to dislodge their shellfish prey. Sadly, there are many threats affecting sea otters leading to their decreased population. Since they are a keystone species, their role in the environment has a greater effect than other species. The worldwide population of sea otters was once estimated to be numbered between several hundred thousand to one million before nearly being hunted to extinction. Today, these numbers have slowly recovered but are not where they used to be (Defenders of the Wildlife). Factors such as natural predators, oil spills, as well as other human interactions are leading to the endangerment of sea otters. Sea otters encounter many natural predators; some on land, others in the sea. Humans are the biggest threat to the otter, hunting them until their numbers are drastically low. Some fishermen view otters as competition since they eat many of the shellfish humans enjoy such as urchins, lobsters, and crabs. During the eighteenth century, sea otters were hunted to the verge of extinction for their fur; a commodity the Russians referred to as “soft gold.” Other human interactions may also lead to habitat degradation due to the creation of pollutants on land. Run-off enters the waters and contaminates their habitat, food sources, and can even harm them directly. According to Defenders of the Wildlife, in California, parasites and infectious diseases cause more than forty percent of sea otter deaths. Scientists have also reported that man-made chemicals are at some of the highest levels ever seen in marine animals. Other predators to sea otters live in the sea with them. Scientists are unsure why, but shark attacks have increased causing a decrease in northern and southern populations. Sea otters are not typically what sharks prey upon, leading to many half-eaten otters found around shore. Other sea predators include killer whales and sea lions. For example, the Alaskan otter is susceptible to killer whales. Approximately 40,000 are consumed annually in this area shown in the map in figure 1 (“Friends of the Sea Otter”). There is not much we can do to prevent the natural food chain, but if humans take precautions to prevent sea otter endangerment, we may see their population numbers greatly increase. A second threat to sea otters are oil spills. Oil caused from offshore drilling, another human interaction, enters their habitat and produces an immense threat to the otters. Sea otters do not have a layer of blubber like most marine animals but instead have the densest fur in the animal kingdom to keep them warm. Oil causes their fur to mat, preventing the insulation of their bodies as seen in figure 2. Without this insulation, sea otters can die from hypothermia. Severe damage of otter’s lungs and eyes, as well as kidney and liver failure can be caused by the toxicity of the oil. The accumulation of only 200 parts per million of toxic hydrocarbons in a sea otter’s body tissues can lead to death. One example of the impact the spills have on sea otters is the Exxon Valdez oil spill in Alaska’s Prince William Sound (figure 3). On March 24, 1989, the 30,000-ton tanker swerved to avoid ice and in result poured eleven million gallons of crude oil into the sea. Within a month, the oil affected 1,244 miles of shoreline along the Alaskan peninsula. The Prince William Sound was home to the healthiest populations of sea otters in the world, so any otters in this area were at risk. By September, 1,016 sea otters as well as 37,000 birds of seventy-four different species had been found dead (Love, 132). John Love describes the devastating findings in his book Sea Otters, “A thousand sea otter carcasses have been picked up- most of them almost unidentifiable lumps of black, congealed oil. Many more may never have been found.” Arguments have begun on the true toll of the spill, but scientists agree the actual death toll was between 100,000 and 300,000, leading to the Exxon Valdez oil spill being described as the greatest environmental disaster in history. “Contrary to claims of rapid recovery and limited long-term effects, ample evidence accumulated in the decades since the spill has demonstrated that not all injured species and ecosystems recovered quickly,” writes James Bodkin. The ‘lucky’ otters that survive the spills are taken to rescue centers, where only half of the treated otters survive. The stress of being handled can worsen the otter’s symptoms caused from the spill. Those who do survive may have permanent internal damage, meaning they may never be able to return to the wild and must live the rest of their lives in captivity. According to Love, of the sea otters who recovered, only forty-five returned to the wild, each with radio tags to monitor their fate. Oil spills will continue to remain a threat for sea otters as well as many other species until offshore drilling around their habitats end and companies learn from the Exxon, as well as other, incidents. In the 1970s, conservation of otters became an issue of importance that remains with us today. According to Paul Chanin in his book The Natural History of Otters, there are four main methods available to conservationists: legislation, habitat protection, education, and captive breeding. ‘Save the Otter’ was a campaign by Friends of the Earth with the objective to add otters to the Conservation of Wild Creatures and Wild Plants Act of 1975. By 1978, catching or killing an otter or attempting to do so in England or Wales became illegal (Chanin, 162). Controversy over legally protecting otters in the 1970s brought the species to the publics’ attention, which helped conservation organizations by generating a great deal of public sympathy. While legal protection is useful, habitat protection is more important when helping endangered otters. Setting aside large areas and providing nature reserves could be useful to provide otters with a safe refuge unless or until their wild habitats are suitable. A third important task in conservation is educating the public on the species. To truly stop the degradation of otters’ habitats, the public must be informed of their consequences and be persuaded to act differently. The fourth and final important task in conservation is captive breeding. “So far only a very small number of species have been returned to a truly wild state in sufficient numbers to re-establish a viable population, for example, the Hawaiian goose or ne-ne and the European bison,” writes Chanin. Captive breeding is an important aspect of conservation with the goal of supplementing populations or re-introducing those that have become extinct. In the case of sea otters, captive breeding may be a very useful tool to increase their population. By themselves, none of these methods have the ability to ‘save’ the sea otter; however, together, we may see significant improvement within the species. Factors such as natural predators, oil spills, as well as other human interactions will continue to lead to the endangerment of sea otters unless sufficient work is done. Through the use of legislation, habitat protection, education, and captive breeding, sea otters may one day return to the abundant population they once were. There is only one Earth, and our job as humans is to maintain and support the growth and lives of all species. By working together, we may one day see sea otters, as well as all other species, safely live in unity. Works Cited “Basic Facts about Sea Otters.” Defenders of Wildlife, Defenders of Wildlife, 19 Sept. 2016. Bodkin, James L. Long Term Effects of the Exxon Valdez Oil Spill. 2012. Print. Chanin, Paul. The Natural History of Otters. Helm, 1988. Print. Love, John A. Sea Otters. Fulcrum Pub., 1992. Print. “Otter Spotting Locations.” Friends of the Sea Otter, Friends of the Sea Otter, 19 Nov. 2014. By Trevor Smith The kelp forest ecosystem is named as such because of the higher density of kelp. Kelp plants are large brown seaweeds that typically have three main features consisting of a holdfast, a stipe, and a blade (Noaa). The holdfast as its name suggests is the anchor of the plant, somewhat like tree roots except the holdfast does not absorb nutrients (Noaa). The stipe of the marine algae is the connector between the holdfast and the blades, somewhat like the trunk of a tree (Noaa). The blades extend from the stipe and are what allow to plant to take in nutrients and photosynthesize. Since it is crucial that these blades receive sunlight some kelp species have even adapted gas filled pneumatocysts that act as floats for the blades to stay up toward the surface of the water (Noaa). As shown in figure 1 there are kelp forests found all over the globe, typically in colder water that receives a significant amount of upwelling. This upwelling brings an incredible amount of nutrients for the kelp and other marine organisms to absorb. These kelp forests provide very unique and diverse habitats for a multitude of sea creatures. To obtain a better understanding of this habitat one must look into the main features that make the kelp forests unique, what organisms live and thrive in this habitat, and the status and threats to this habitat. The main feature of the kelp forests is the kelp, which in itself is not uncommonly rare. However, the large amount of kelp in one area is what allows the habitat to take on the uncommon role of being a nursery habitat. Being a nursery habitat it means that the kelp forests have a greater level of productivity per unit area than other juvenile habitats (Noaa). The reason for this higher level of productivity is the kelp provides protection from a multitude of environmental dangers (Kelp Forests). The kelp itself acts as a wave break causing slower and less forceful waves inside the kelp forest (Jackson & Winant, 1983). The kelp also provides shelter from predators, allowing juvenile organisms to survive into maturity (Noaa). Perhaps the main attribute that allows for such a high diversity in a small area is the fact that the kelp forests is divided into layers shown in Figure 2. This multilayered habitat allows multiple different species to exist in the same area while filling the needs of each organism. The kelp forest ecosystem not only provides shelter and protection in unique ways but is also a food source for the herbivores. The main herbivore feeding upon the kelp are sea urchins but there are many others including kelp crabs, isopods, gastropods, and herbivorous fish (Kelp Forests). As figure 3 indicates the food web in this ecosystem is diverse due to the sheer amount of different organisms living in this habitat. Obviously different kelp forests will have different species inhabiting them but Figure 3 presents a good look into how diverse the ecosystem is. Kelp forests not only feed the organisms that call it a home but sometimes other animals move into the kelp forest in search of food. These roving feeders include pelagic fishes and sometimes seals, sea lions, sharks, and even whales (Noaa). The keystone species for many kelp forests is the sea otter (Noaa). The sea otter is incredibly helpful to the ecosystem because it eats the sea urchin that feeds on the kelp. It also helps that sea otters have such high metabolic needs that they require a relatively high amount of food. Sea otters have also been seen wrapping the kelp around themselves like a blanket in order to stop themselves from drifting out with the tide (Kelp Forests). The sea otters are not alone in keeping the herbivorous kelp forest populations down, other predators include lobsters and large fish. However, when much of the predatory forces are overhunted or overfished for one reason or another it causes a multitude of problems for this ecosystem (Dayton et al., 1998). The kelp forest ecosystem is so diverse and unique that it may also hinder the ecosystem, since if even one pressure is applied too forcefully it can have catastrophic effects. The diversity and relative safety of the kelp forest makes the ecosystem a prime candidate for fishing as well as hunting. When the main predatory forces such as the larger fish are taken for food, or the sea otters hunted for the incredibly dense fur, it causes a major paradigm shift in the ecosystem. When herbivores no longer feel the predatory pressure their populations explode. This increase of herbivores, mainly sea urchins, results in over grazing of the kelp forest and may eventually lead to an urchin barren (Filbee-Dexter & Scheibling, 2014). This chain of events effectively kills the kelp forest with little hope of a resurgence without some sort of outside assistance. Problems in the kelp forest ecosystem are not only caused by the removal of higher level trophic predators. The kelp can be severely damaged by storms such as El Niño. The increase in the temperature of the water weakens and may even kill the kelp (Smale & Vance, 2016). While the increased wave activity can snap the stipes or even rip up the holdfasts of the kelp. The storms also decrease the nutrient inclusion that normally occurs with upwelling, further weakening the kelp (Smale & Vance, 2016). These are all normal occurrences in nature that the kelp forest can normally rebound from. If the kelp canopy is sheared off due to increased wave action the normally light limited species underneath will begin to flourish while the canopy repairs itself. However, the kelp forest ecosystem is typically also afflicted by pollution. The pollution causes the plants to weaken and not grow to its full potential or strength (Wernberg et al., 2016). All of these factors combined make it all too easy for the kelp forests to collapse into barrens void of the life that once flourished here. Kelp forests are habitats filled with a diversity rarely matched in other ecosystems. This diversity is caused by the unique features that are so prevalent in this ecosystem. These unique features allow the ecosystem to be a home to an incredible amount of fauna and flora. However, all of this diversity cannot protect this ecosystem from the various threats posed against it. With all of these threats and the decline of kelp forests in the past, there is a hopeful future for this ecosystem. The predators which were over hunted and overfished before are now protected to hopefully increase their numbers into non-threatening levels. Pollution has been made illegal allowing the kelp to strengthen. Some kelp forests have been made into marine protected areas, keeping them safe from multiple threats. Sadly, nothing can be done to protect against strong storms but with all of these other protective measures in place the return of kelp forests to their former glory seems assured. Figure 3. California kelp forest food web; From: http://qvcproject.blogspot.com/2013/09/ References Dayton, P. K., Tegner, M. J., Edwards, P. B., & Riser, K. L. (1998). Sliding Baselines, Ghosts, and Reduced Expectations in Kelp Forest Communities. Ecological Applications, 8(2), 309. doi:10.2307/2641070 Filbee-Dexter, K., & Scheibling, R. (2014). Sea urchin barrens as alternative stable states of collapsed kelp ecosystems. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 495, 1-25. doi:10.3354/meps10573 Jackson, G. A., & Winant, C. D. (1983). Effect of a kelp forest on coastal currents. Continental Shelf Research, 2(1), 75-80. doi:10.1016/0278-4343(83)90023-7 Kelp Forests. Retrieved October 27, 2017, from http://life.bio.sunysb.edu/marinebio/kelpforest.html Noaa Kelp Forests - a Description. (n.d.). Retrieved October 27, 2017, from https://sanctuaries.noaa.gov/visit/ecosystems/kelpdesc.html Smale, D. A., & Vance, T. (2016). Climate-driven shifts in species distributions may exacerbate the impacts of storm disturbances on North-east Atlantic kelp forests. Marine and Freshwater Research, 67(1), 65. doi:10.1071/mf14155 Wernberg, T., Bennett, S., Babcock, R. C., Bettignies, T. D., Cure, K., Depczynski, M., . . . Wilson, S. (2016, July 08). Climate-driven regime shift of a temperate marine ecosystem. Retrieved October 27, 2017, from http://science.sciencemag.org/content/353/6295/169 |
Biology of the Sea
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